General test of carbohydrates

Biological test :
GENERAL TEST OF CARBOHYDRATES:
There are many test for identifying whether solution containing carbohydrates,lipids or protein.
Here we explain general test of carbohydrates
1)Foulger test:
presence of ketonic groups in sugar.
Apparatus:
test tube,test tube holder,glass pipette
CHEMICAL:
folger solution reagent,different
sugars
PROCEDURE:
take 3ml of foulger's reagent in a clear and dry test tube.
Add 0.5 ml of sugar soon.
mix and biol for one minute.
RESULTS:
blue color appears in the presence of ketohexoses.

Aging

It's a single word everyone knows about it or symptoms also known by everyone..
Now we talk about it's time duration means in which age you are saying that you are aged or aging is start .....
It's surprising that aging may b start at the age of 12-13 years and its a diseased condition in which a man can die any early age by heart attack.
and this diseased condition is called As progeria
Symptoms:

the symptoms of progeria is the boy shows
loosely skin attached to their bones
highly risk for heart disease or heart attack
Causes;

The main causes of progeria disease is Mutation in which lamin A is mutate.
Want to prevent yourself to aging???
the main steps for preventing by aging is
You should have a very well developed repair mechanism that doesn't allow any type of mutation to occur
or secondary most important is yours insulin resistance to your body. .
insulin is most important for regulating body nutrients or energy on the form of glucose...
that's all about aging if you want to ask any questions relating to aging u can post a comment so I'll help you
regards
admin

structure of DNA 

DNA is a ribose sugar which is abbrivated as Deoxyribonocleiac Acid.
its very important to code for the genetic information from parents to offosprings.

 

The basic building block of DNA was known as nucleotide. consisting of the five car bons sugars.Ther are two types of  nitrogenous bases present in a nucleic acid,Prymidines which contain a single ring,and Purines which contain a two rings.

DNA contain two different type of Pyrimidines that is thymine and cytosine.

Two different types of purines that is Guanine and Adinine

These nucloeride is covlentely linked to one another to form a Linear strand, with alternating sugar and phosphate group joined by 3-5 phosphodiester  bond.

X-ray analysis shows diffraction analysis indicating that the distance between the nucleotide of the stack was 3.4nm.

CARBOHYDRATES

As the name represent carbon or hydrates mean hydrogen and ooxygen.

carbohyrates has ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon.

   simplest carbohydrate that is we used in our dite is

bread potatoes and rice.

Types of carbohydrates

1)MONOSACCHARIDES

2)DISACCHARIDES

3)OLIGOSACCAHRIDES

4)PLYSACCHARIDES

MONOSACCAHRIDES

 These simple sugars can combine with each other to form more complex carbohydratesnd oxygen.

Monosaccharide classifications based on the number of carbons

Number of Carbons	Category Name	Examples
4	Tetrose	Erythrose, Threose
5	Pentose	Arabinose, Ribose, Ribulose, Xylose, Xylulose, Lyxose
6	Hexose	Allose, Altrose, Fructose, Galactose, Glucose, Gulose, Idose, Mannose, Sorbose, Talose, Tagatose
7	Heptose	Sedoheptulose, Mannoheptulose

  A chain-form monosaccharide that has a carbonyl group (C=O) on an end carbon forming an aldehyde group (-CHO) is classified as an aldose. When the carbonyl group is on an inner atom forming a ketone, it is classified as a ketose.

D-Erythrose	D-Threose

 Hexoses that has molecular formula C₆H₁₂O₆. German chemist Emil Fischer (1852-1919) identified the stereoisomers for these aldohexoses in 1894. He received the 1902 Nobel Prize for chemistry for his work.

D-Allose

D-Altrose

D-Glucose

D-Mannose

D-Gulose

D-Idose

D-Galactose

DISACCHARIDES

Disaccharides consist of two simple sugars

Sucrose, also called saccharose, is ordinary table sugar refined from sugar cane or sugar beets. It is the main ingredient in turbinado sugar, evaporated or dried cane juice, brown sugar, and confectioner's sugar. Lactose has a molecular structure consisting of galactose and glucose

Sucrose

POLYSACCAHRIDES

Many polysaccharides, unlike sugars, are insoluble in water. Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides and oligosaccharides that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine but which are completely or partially fermented by microorganisms in the large intestine. The polysaccharides described below play important roles in nutrition, biology, or food preparation.

BASIC TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES ARE:

STARCH

CELLULOSE

Genetic linkage ,Mapping & crossing over

crossing over is the exchange of segment between homologous chromosomes

 

just as in diagram it is represented that fragment x has homologous chromosome

that is cr,Band other Y has ++.when it is cross over it then produce parental genotype

and as well as recombinant that is cr + and +B.they are cross over

EVIDENCES OF CROSS-OVER

Direct evidence was firstly given in  1931 by c.stern working on drosophila

stern studied two x chromosomes that differed from the normal x chromosomes.that one chromosome has y chromosome on its one end and 2nd ha smaller than normal chromosomes.

Two linked gene eye color( car) and shape is bar like and cross over occur in these just as in diagram on top.

Gene mapping

DNA Replication in prokaryotes

As i figure its show that in prokaryotes replicaton majore requirements is

Helicase

SSB

Polymerases

Okazaki fregments

POLYMEASES 

Their are several type of polymerases in prokaryotes that are
Plymerase 1
Polymerase 2
Polymerase 3

polymerase 1; it is the repair enzyme that fill the gap in between newley synthesised DNA

polymerase 2' its function is still unkown but its consider to be helpfull to polymease 3

polymerase 3: it is the replicating enzyme

PROTEINS:

Helicase;
that is the most important for sepration of DNA stands.its seprate DNA strand.
SSB:
its also protein that prevents to rewinding of DNA strands

ENZYMES:

REPLISOMES
it consist if replicating units
two Beta clamps

Anatomy of man

In human's body organ's are placed in an arrangrd manner if anything is distubed then man faced 

many problems in the form of dieses,which leads to death.

The most important organ of our body is liver.

in case of infection in liver many diseases occur such  Hepatitis that is most common in Pakistan or in many other countries like india, which is mostly occurs due to the infection in liver.

now many types of hepatitis can be seen

such as; Hepatitis A 

or Hepatius B, C,D,E